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One of the most controversial passages in the Bible is Revelation 13:16-18. It is in these verses that we read about the mark of the beast and the number 666. The passage reads, “He [the False Prophet] also forced everyone, small and great, rich and poor, free and slave, to receive a mark on his right hand or on his forehead, so that no one could buy or sell unless he had the mark, which is the name of the beast or the number of his name. This calls for wisdom. If anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666.”

It is this passage (especially verse 18) that has garnered the most attention throughout history when it comes to prophecy. “No verse in Revelation has received more attention than this one with its cryptic reference to the number of the beast,” writes scholar Robert Mounce.[1] Other writers have expressed similar conclusions with Mark Hitchcock saying that the number 666 “may be one of the most intriguing issues in all of Bible prophecy. There has probably been more speculation, sensationalism, and silliness about this topic than any other in Bible prophecy.” Even so, he adds, “it is a serious topic that requires and deserves careful investigation.”[2]

What exactly is the mark of the beast? What is the meaning of the number 666? Are they literal or symbolic? Will people in the future take a tattoo or a computer chip to buy products and services? This essay seeks to answer these questions.

The Background of the Mark

Let us begin with the biblical, historical, and cultural background of the mark of the beast. What existed in Greco-Roman society that would have been seen by Christians as resembling the mark of the beast? Marks were used in many different contexts in the New Testament world. First,disobedient slaves were branded with a mark as were soldiers that were defeated in battle (an example being the time when the Samians branded Athenian prisoners with an owl).[3]

Second, marks appeared within a religious context in Greco-Roman culture. Religious tattoos were widespread as believers were branded to show their devotion. Emperor worship was also popular at this time. Certificates were issued to people who had fulfilled the required rituals of this kind of worship. 3 Maccabees 2:29 teaches that the Greek ruler of Egypt, Ptolemy Philopator (who reigned from 221-204 BC), branded Jews with an ivy leaf which was the mark of Dionysiac worship.[4]

Third, the Greek word translated “mark” was used for the likeness and/or name of an emperor on Roman coins and the emperor’s seal on business contracts.[5] Mounce says that the Greek word was “a technical designation for the seals that were attached to commercial documents and stamped with the name and date of the emperor.”[6] It is interesting to note that Ignatius, the bishop of Antioch in the early 2^nd century, used a coin metaphor in the same way that John used the “mark.”[7]

Fourth, there is a likely connection to the Jewish custom of wearing phylacteries. These are little leather boxes that contained parts of the Mosaic Law. These were worn on the left hand and on the forehead in obedience to Deuteronomy 6:8 (see also Matthew 23:5).[8] One scholar notes that having a mark on the right hand or on the forehead would be “an obvious travesty of the practice of [Orthodox] Judaism which required the faithful to wear phylacteries on the left hand and on the head.”[9] Another even calls the mark of the beast “a demonic reversal of the Jewish practice.”[10] It is likely that John the Apostle, who was Jewish, would have seen the mark as a parody of phylacteries and Deuteronomy 6:8.

Fifth, there is also the likely comparison between Revelation 13:16-18 and Ezekiel 9:4. In Ezekiel 8-11, the Lord takes the prophet to Jerusalem in a vision. In 9:4, God commands that a mark be placed on the forehead of the men in Jerusalem who are grieving over the sins of the people. Those who were still following God were to be marked off from those who were sinning.[11]

Sixth, Exodus 28:36-38 records that a plate with an engraving “Holy to the Lord” was attached to the priestly turban that was placed on Aaron’s forehead. It was to be on Aaron’s head so that the Israelite’s would be acceptable to the Lord.[12]

Seventh, and lastly, it is possible that the mark could have also been seen as a parody of the Christian practice of making the sign of the cross on the forehead of a recent convert to the faith.[13] (Article continues below…)

Table 1: Emperor Worship

When hearing about the mark of the beast, one of the first things that would have come to the minds of the original audience would have been emperor worship. The imperial cult was a common phenomenon during the first century AD. It was Augustus (r. 30 BC – 14 AD) that contributed this innovation to Greco-Roman religion, although he did not decree worship of himself. Instead, he wanted his “genius” worshipped, that is, “the divine spirit that presided over his life and from which his power emanated.”[14]   The imperial cult served to promote loyalty to the emperor and was easily accepted by the people of the eastern Mediterranean because they had already venerated rulers as gods for centuries. The cult became a normal feature of public life during the first century AD which also included a presence in Palestine. In Rome, the imperial cult tended to promote the divinity of deceased emperors whereas people living in the provinces were free to worship living emperors.[15]   Cults honoring the emperors were numerous throughout the empire. Between Augustus and Constantine, thirty-six of the total of sixty emperors were given the title “divine.” This even went as far as twenty-seven imperial family members being given this title as well. During the New Testament period, Augustus was the recipient of a cult in Asia and Bithynia (in modern-day Turkey) in 29 AD, the term kyrios (“lord”) was used for Nero (see Acts 25:26), and Vespasian and Titus were even called “savior.”[16]   The emperor Domitian (r. 81-96 AD) demanded the worship of the people. He wanted sacrifices made to himself, and he also wanted his fellow Romans to address him as “lord and god.” Interestingly, he was assassinated not too long after demanding this. “After his death, the cult of the emperor reverted to a low-key pledge of allegiance to the emperor.”[17]   The Romans did not require anybody to worship only the emperor. They allowed the people to worship him alongside the gods of their own religious traditions. Only the Jews and Christians had a problem with the imperial cult. Typically, they could avoid the issue altogether, however, at times they couldn’t. Emperor worship “became a problem for the average Christian on those occasions when…[it]…was used as a loyalty test.”[18]

The Characteristics and Purposes of the Mark

Let us now move on to the characteristics and purposes of the mark. First, Revelation presents Christians as having the name of Christ on their foreheads as opposed to the unsaved having the “name of the beast” on theirs (13:17-18; 22:4).[19] Many scholars believe that the mark of the beast is a parody of the sealing of God’s servants in Revelation 7:3-8. God seals his followers as Satan and the beast mark theirs.[20]

Second, it is important to emphasize that the mark is given to small and great, rich and poor, and free and slave. According to Mounce, this “coupling of opposites…is a rhetorical way of stressing the totality of human society (cf. 11:18; 19:5, 18; 20:12).”[21] Every person of every status, possessions, and “their state in society” is included.[22] The Antichrist will use the mark to extend his control over everyone that he possibly can.

Third, why is the mark placed on the forehead or the right hand? Scholar William Hendriksen explains it this way:

“The forehead symbolizes the mind, the thought-life, the philosophy of a person. The right hand indicates his deed, action, trade, industry, etc. Therefore, receiving the mark of the beast on the forehead or right hand indicates that the person so characterized belongs to the company of those who persecute the Church; and that – either preeminently in what he thinks, says, writes or more emphatically in what he does – this antichristian spirit becomes evident.”[23]

Another scholar, G.K. Beale, believes that the forehead carries the meaning of ideological commitment and that the hand represents “the practical outworking of that commitment.”[24]

This brings us to the fourth characteristic of the mark. The mark is given to people to indicate ownership.[25] Hendriksen says, “this seal [the one on a Christian] indicates that he belongs to Christ, worships Him, breathes His spirit and thinks His thoughts after Him. Similarity, the mark of the beast symbolizes that the unbeliever, who persists in his wickedness, belongs to the beast and therefore to Satan, whom he worships.”[26]

A mark on a slave meant that he or she belonged to his master. To receive the mark meant that they belonged to that person worshipped them, or served them (Revelation 14:9, 11; 20:4).[27] “To be identified with someone’s name is equivalent to partaking of that person’s character.”[28] The mark on believers and unbelievers represents that they have been stamped with the character (image) of Christ or the beast.[29]

If Revelation 13 has the idea of branding slaves in mind with the mark, “then the beast’s worshipers are seen as his property. If branding of soldiers or religious devotees is in view, the worshipers are seen as his faithful followers.”[30] It is likely that both are in view here.

Fifth, the mark “will represent the ultimate test of religious loyalty. Only those who would rather die than compromise their faith will resist the mark of Antichrist.”[31] As a result, the mark serves to identify people who worship the beast.[32]

Sixth, the mark allows the followers of the beast to take part in the economy.[33] “An economic boycott is raised against all who refuse to fall into line. Its’ purpose seems to be to harass believers rather than the method by which they are to be put to death (v. 15).”[34] Another writer adds, “This economic pressure will be instrumental in causing many weak, worldly individuals to succumb to the establishment of [the Antichrist].”[35] No one will be able to live outside the system because of the economic power of the Antichrist. One will have to worship him or be cut off from the necessities of life.[36] (Article continues below…)

Table 2: Deuteronomy 6:6-9 and the Mark

I want to make a connection between the mark and the Jewish custom of wearing phylacteries in Deuteronomy 6:6-9. In these verses, which are referring to God’s commands, Moses tells the Israelites to “impress them on your children. Talk about them when you sit at home and when you walk along the road, when you lie down and when you get up. Tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. Write them on the doorframes of your houses and on your gates.”   There is disagreement on whether Moses was literal or not concerning binding them on a person’s forehead or hands. Either way, this passage is emphasizing that our commitment to God is to permeate every part of our life. This commitment “for unreserved love for [the Lord] must be indelibly written on one’s own inner being.”[37]   We have seen that the mark of the beast is a pledge of loyalty, a mark of ownership, and worship. Like the mark, God’s laws are also to be placed on a person’s hands and forehead. Bible scholar Daniel Block says, “If we associate this act with the inscription of the divine name on one’s hand (cf. Deut 5:11; Isa. 44:5), this action signifies more than a tattoo or brand on the hand. The binding concretizes the declaration of allegiance and ownership by [the Lord] as declared orally in the Shema.”[38]   Tying God’s laws to one’s forehead or hands declare a person’s allegiance to God, and that shows that he owns them. It is no wonder Satan wants people to place a mark on their right hand or forehead. It symbolizes their allegiance to him and declares that he owns them. The mark of the beast is a clear parody of Deuteronomy 6:6-9.

The Number of the Beast

We now come to the number of the beast. Revelation 13:18 says, “This calls for wisdom. If anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man’s number. His number is 666.”

The verse begins with a call for wisdom. It is likely that this is an allusion to Daniel 12:10 and Mark 13:14/Matthew 24:15. Referring to the prophecies that Daniel had received, an angel tells Daniel that the wicked will not understand but that the wise would. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus calls the reader to understand the prophecies of Daniel that are connected to the End Times (specifically those connected to the Antichrist).[39]

Scholar John Walvoord says concerning the call to wisdom, “John is calling for his readers to exercise extreme care and divinely guided wisdom in interpreting the number. It also means that he expected his readers to understand it, pointing further to the solution as centered in first-century rather than twentieth-century symbolism.”[40]

When it comes to the meaning of the number 666 we have had many interpretations throughout Christian history. There are two main methods used. The first is known as gematria. The second teaches that 666 carries a symbolic meaning.

Hitchcock believes that gematria is the best method for understanding the meaning of 666 due to the word “calculate.”[41] What is gematria? Put simply “gematria was the practice of representing words and names by the sums of their numerical equivalents.”[42] “In ancient times, letters of the alphabet served as numbers. The first nine letters stood for the numbers one through nine, the next nine for the numbers ten through ninety, and so on. As there were not enough letters in the then current Greek alphabet, certain obsolete letters and signs were brought into the system. Thus, every name yielded a number.”[43]

There are many examples of gematria from the ancient world. One example would be the number 888 found in the Sibylline Oracles 1.325. Here the number of the name of Jesus is given as 888 in Greek letters.[44] There is also the interesting example of gematria from a piece of graffiti from Pompeii that reads “I love her whose name is 545.” The girl who the graffiti was about likely known it was about her.[45]

Gematria was used widely in apocalyptic literature because of its enigmatic and symbolic quality. Because of the nature of gematria, it is believed by many that all attempts to identify an individual in the number 666 is difficult “because of the metaphorical manner in which language and numbers are used in the apocalypse.” Continuing with this idea, Beale says, “None of the many proposed solutions using gematria is ultimately satisfactory because there are so many names, ancient and modern, that come to 666.”[46]

Beale is not kidding. Numerous names, words, and phrases have been calculated to equal 666. Here is an incomplete list:[47]

1. The Roman Emperor Nero is perhaps one of the most popular in recent memory.
2. The initials of the Roman emperors from Julius Caesar to Vespasian add up to 666. However, this only works if you omit Otho and Vitellius.
3. Counting up an abbreviated form of the full Latin title of Domitian in Greek (Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus Germanicus).
4. Sibylline Oracles 5.1-51 allude to many different rulers from Alexander to Hadrian.
5. Coins issued in the year 72 AD “bear a legend around Vespasian’s head that, when placed into Hebrew, would yield the sum of 666.”[48]
6. Six Roman numerals add up to 666 (I, V, X, L, C, D).[49]
7. Another ingenious interpretation is “that 666 is the triangular number of 36 (1 plus 2 plus 3 etc. up to 36), and 36 is the triangular number of 8 – the number of the Antichrist (cf. 17:11).”[50] This is referring to the fact that Revelation 17:11 says that the beast is the eighth king.
8. Sibylline Oracles 1.324-30 uses gematria to show that the name of Jesus adds up to 888 which is an interesting contrast with 666. Perhaps 666 is a symbol of incompleteness compared to Christ (more on this later).
9. The Greek “beast” has a numerical value of 666 in Hebrew.
10. The early Christian apologist, Irenaeus (130-202), gave three examples as to what he thought equaled 666: 1) Euanthas (a name that is no longer identifiable); Lateinos (the Roman Empire); and Teitan (the Titans of Greek mythology). He tends to favor the latter of these.[51]
11. The early Christian commentator Primasius gave two examples: 1) antemos – a name interpreted to mean “contrary to honor.” The Antichrist will not have the honor that belongs to God, and 2) arnoume – meaning “I deny.”[52]
12. Oecumenius, writing in the 6^th or 7^th century, gives us many different names and titles including Lampetis, Benedict, Titan, the Conqueror (possibly referring to the Antichrist fighting the three horns in Daniel 7), Unstable, Evil Guide, Truly Harmful, Ancient Slanderer, and Unjust Lamb.[53]  
13. There are many modern names that have been suggested: The German Kaiser, Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Henry Kissinger, Lyndon Johnson, John F Kennedy, Mikhail Gorbachev, and Ronald Ragan.
14. Hitchcock notes that “phone books are full of names that might add up to 666 if converted to their numerical value.”[54]

It is easy to see that many names, phrases, titles, etc., equal 666. Because of this Tim LaHaye says that “it is dangerous to make…suggestions.”[55] The difficulty of gematria has led to a division among scholars on whether or not it is the correct method of calculating the meaning of 666. Beale argues that the large amount “of conflicting solutions argues against a literal calculation method as ever yielding the right interpretation.”[56] However, LaHaye believes that the number will reveal the name of the Antichrist during the Tribulation.[57]

The meaning of 666: one man or all of humanity?

An alternate way of interpreting 666 teaches that the number is a symbolic way of referring to all of humanity. Thus, 666 does not calculate the name of the future Antichrist. Advocates of this view point out the symbolic nature of numbers in the Apocalypse.

This view goes back at least to the second century AD with Irenaeus (although he believed that the number gave us a name as well). He viewed 666 as a symbol for all the evil of the world before the Great Flood, the image of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar as a precursor to the worship of the Antichrist, and he connected the number to biblical chronology.[58] One can see his connection to the first two by noting that the Flood came in Noah’s 600^th year and Nebuchadnezzar’s image was 60 cubits high and six cubits wide (Daniel 3:1).

Today, many scholars believe 666 is symbolic. This would be especially true concerning the triple sixes. Hendriksen explains it by saying,

“Let him remember that the number of the beast is the number of man. Now, man was created on the sixth day. Six, moreover, is not seven and never reaches seven. It always fails to attain to perfection; that is, it never becomes seven. Six means missing the mark, or failure. Seven means perfection or victory…The number of the beast is 666, that is, failure upon failure upon failure! It is the number of man, for beast glorifies in man; and must fail!”[59]

This is a great summary of the symbolic view, but there are other arguments to support it. First, no other number in Revelation is used in a way to identify a particular individual using gematria. All the other numbers in Revelation have some figurative meaning and symbolize some spiritual reality. Why should 666 be any different?[60]

Second, there is the fact that the number 666 and the name of the beast are in contrast to the name of the Lord in the very next verse (14:1).[61] Advocates of the symbolic view do not think that the name of the Lord will be literally visible on a believer’s forehead. Instead, the name of the Lord or the beast shows us that they own their respective followers and that the latter has taken on the character of the one who owns them.

Third, John uses the word “number” elsewhere to signify an uncountable multitude (5:11; 7:4, 9; 9:16; 20:8) not as a form of gematria.[62] Fourth, the number seven refers to the idea of completeness throughout the Apocalypse, so it is highly suggested that 666 is “intended as a contrast with the divine sevens throughout the book and signify incompleteness and imperfection.” Plus, there is also the number 144,000 in the next verse which may connote completeness.[63]

Beale explains this perspective well: “In the Bible the number three signifies completeness, as, for example, in the completeness of the Godhead in Rev. 1:4-5, which is parodied by the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet here in ch. 13 (and in 16:13). Therefore, six repeated three times indicates the completeness of sinful incompleteness found in the beast. The beast epitomizes imperfection, while appearing to achieve divine perfection. Three sixes are a parody of the divine trinity of three sevens. That is, though the beast attempts to mimic God, Christ, and the prophetic Spirit of truth (cf. 19:10), he falls short of succeeding.”[64]

Fifth, 666 also falls short of 888 – the number of Jesus in Greek. Quite simply, the beast falls short of being Christ.[65] Sixth, the number six is also seen in the sixth seal, sixth trumpet, and sixth bowl. Each of these depicts judgment on the followers of the beast. The seventh in each of these series depict the final consummation of Christ’s kingdom.[66]

Seventh, there is also the possibility that the phrase “for it is a number of a man” should be translated “for it is a number of humanity.” A close parallel to this wording is found in Revelation 21:17 where an angel measures the wall of the New Jerusalem using man’s (i.e., humanity’s) measurement. The article is missing in both cases, so it is possible that these words may be an idiom to refer to something generic to humanity. This would make 666 “a number common to fallen humanity.”[67]  

Overall, this perspective argues quite well for a symbolic view of 666 (although not every argument is equally strong). I do believe that the number 666 carries a symbolic meaning for humanity. I also agree with the view that 666 falls short of divine perfection concerning the Trinity, the number 7, and 888. It is clearly also a contrast of the Lord’s name in 14:1.

However, just because 666 refers to all of humanity and incompleteness does not mean that it cannot also be calculated to give us the name of an individual who will live just before the return of Christ. It should also be noted that just because gematria is not used in other parts of Revelation does not mean that it cannot be so here in 13:18. A word (“number” in this case) can carry different meanings depending on the immediate context.

Final Thoughts on 666

Even Beale, who is a strong advocate of the symbolic view, believes that it is possible that the number could represent both an individual man and be symbolic for fallen humanity at the same time. I agree with this assessment. The argument for the symbolism of numbers in Revelation is strong, and because of the popularity of gematria in the ancient world, it seems clear that the original readers would have immediately recognized that 666 was to be calculated as a name.

Since 1 John 2:18 speaks about many antichrists, it is also possible that Nero, Hitler, and others whose names have calculated to 666 may be partial fulfillments of the number of the beast. These individuals are antichrists and are symbols of state power that tries to grasp what belongs to God.[68] Beale mentions that “one individual can be the embodiment of evil at any particular period of history, and Christians need spiritual wisdom to discern the danger posed by such an individual.”[69]

There is also no reason not to believe that one final individual may be in view as well (the final Antichrist).[70] Grant Osbourne responds to the idea that the number only refers to human depravity by saying, “the NT evidence for an actual Antichrist figure appearing in human history is too strong. Therefore, it refers to a particular ‘person,’ probably identifying the Antichrist with a certain individual.”[71] There is abundant evidence in Scripture that teaches that there will be one final antichrist before the second coming of Christ.[72]

It is likely that no one will be able to know the name of the beast using gematria until the Tribulation, so it is a waste of time trying to figure the name out today.[73] Whoever the Antichrist is will fulfill all the prophecies about him. This is why every name in history up to this point whose name calculated to 666 was not the final Antichrist. He must fulfill everything, and no one has at this point.

Will people take a literal mark?

One of the biggest questions concerning the mark of the beast is whether it will be a literal, visible mark that people will have to take or if the mark is purely symbolic. Let’s first examine the arguments in favor of a symbolic view. The first argument teaches that since the name/seal of God is invisible on Christians then so will the mark of the beast.[74] This is supported by the fact that the very next verse (14:1) mentions that the name of God and Christ are “written on the foreheads” of the saints.[75]

Second, the blasphemous names written on the seven heads of the beast (13:1) may also indicate that the mark of the name is not visible. The seven heads of the beast likely represent seven historical kingdoms so we must ask how could seven kingdoms have literal names written on them? These names “figuratively connote false claims to earthly divine kingship” so the mark of the beast could have a similar meaning.[76]

Thirdly, Hendriksen is against the idea that the mark is a “single, individual, outward, visible sign” that will appear on people “at one particular moment in history; then, and then only.” He believes that the beasts in Revelation 13 are symbols for evil government and false religion throughout all of history. Thus, the mark appears whenever evil government and false religions appear (that is, all the time).[77]

Beale believes that “the mark is clearly figurative of the ways in which the state keeps check on whether people submit to compulsory idol worship.”[78] Hailey adds that the mark is figurative as “the stamp of paganism impressed upon the character and conduct of idolaters.”[79]

However, not all scholars agree with this as many believe that a real, visible sign will be present.[80] The main argument in favor of a literal interpretation is, as Mounce says it, “It is hard, however, to understand how [an invisible] ‘mark’ could be used to determine if a person could take part in daily commercial transactions.”[81] One can also ask how a symbolic mark can be used as a sign of loyalty and allegiance?[82] Hitchcock believes that the mark will be visible since the marks in Leviticus 6 and Ezekiel 9:4 were visible.[83]

If the blasphemous names and the name of God on believers are symbolic then does this mean that the mark of the beast cannot have a literal fulfillment? No, it does not. Revelation 13:16-17 connects the mark of the beast to economic activity (we do not have this connection for Ezekiel 9:4, Revelation 13:1 or 14:1).

I agree with Mounce and Hitchcock. If the mark carries only a symbolic fulfillment, it is hard to understand how it could be used to control economic activity and as a sign of loyalty. These details seem to teach that a visible mark will exist during the Tribulation. There is no reason why the mark cannot carry both a literal and symbolic meaning. It should also be noted that I disagree with Hendricksen’s belief that the beast represents all forms of evil government throughout history (read this article).

What could the Mark be?

If the mark is literal, then what could it be? There are many different examples someone in the modern world can examine. LaHaye brings up food stamps and food rationing that existed in America during WWII.[84] Hitchcock notes other possibilities such as tattoos, ID cards, bar codes, microchips, social security cards, and even retina scanners.[85]

Aune immediately notes that because the mark is placed on the hand or forehead, this would exclude coins.[86] It is also worth noting that the Greek word for “mark” (charagma) indicates a stamp and often pointed to an engraved mark or seal impression.[87] When applied to human or animal skin, the mark would be a brand.[88] The Greek epi that is used in Revelation 13:16 means that the mark is to be placed “upon” not “in.”[89] These details would exclude retina scanners (how could this have anything to do with the forehead or hand anyways) and microchips.

Ultimately, we do not know exactly how the mark will manifest itself. It is even possible that the mark will be some new technology in the future that we currently do not know about. Hitchcock believes that we should not waste time thinking about this, but he does say:

“The technology is certainly available today to accomplish the purposes of the mark by regulating world commerce and controlling people’s transactions. There are also many amazing new means of locating, identifying, and tracking people’s lives that foreshadow the global scenario depicted in Revelation 13. It’s one more indicator pointing toward the picture Scripture paints of the end times.”[90]

Conclusion

The mark of the beast is one of the most mysterious and popular topics in the Bible. As we have seen, there is a good argument to be made that 666 has both a symbolic and literal fulfillment. As to whom the number points to will not be known until the Tribulation period, and as to what people will actually take in fulfillment to the mark (tattoo, etc.) will also not be known until the time comes. As Christians we should be very cautious to announce that “this” or “that” is the mark or “this” person is the Antichrist until all the prophecies are being fulfilled.

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[1] Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation. Revised Ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 261.

[2] Mark Hitchcock, The End (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2012), 331-332. Also see Tim LaHaye, Revelation Unveiled (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999), 227;

Grant R. Osborne, Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 519.

[3] Plutarch, Pericles 26; Herodotus, The Histories 7.233; G.K. Beale, The Book of Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999), 715; Edwin A. Judge, “The Mark of the Beast, Revelation 13:16” Tyndale Bulletin 42.1 (May 1991) 160; John MacArthur, The MacArthur Bible Commentary (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2005), 2019; Mounce, 259; Osbourne, 517-518.

[4] Lucian, De Syria Dea 59; Herodotus, The Histories 2.113. David E. Aune, Revelation 6-16 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1998) – Kindle Edition [2007], 17309-17318; Beale, 715, 717; Judges, 160; MacArthur, 2019; Mounce, 259; Osbourne, 517-518. See also 2 Maccabees 6:7 and Hippolytus, “On the Antichrist” 49, In Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture – Revelation [ACCS}, Ed. William C. Weinrich (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005), 208.

[5] Aune, 17318; Beale, 715; Mounce, 259; Osbourne, 518.

[6] Mounce, 259.

[7] Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Magnesians 5.

[8] Aune, 17309; Judge, 158; Mounce, 259; Osbourne, 517.

[9] Ford, 225. Quoted in Mounce, 259.

[10] Montague, 158. Quoted in Mounce, 259.

[11] Aune, 17309; Beale, 715; Hitchcock, 336; Judge, 158; Osbourne, 517.

[12] Judge, 158.

[13] Mounce, 259.

[14] James S. Jeffers, The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1999), 101.

[15] Aune, 17664, 17715; Jeffers, 101.

[16] Aune, 17646, 17697; Jeffers, 101.

[17] Jeffers, 101; Aune, 17672.

[18] Jeffers, 102.

[19] Osbourne, 518.

[20] Aune, 17338; Beale, 716; Hitchcock, 340; Judge, 158; Mounce, 260; Osbourne, 517; John F. Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1989), 209; George R. Beasley-Murray, “Revelation.” In New Bible Commentary Ed. G.J. Wenham, J.A. Motyer, D.A. Carson, and R.T. France (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1994), 1443; Caesarius of Arles, “Exposition on the Apocalypse 13.15-16” and “Homily II.” In ACCS, 209.

[21] Mounce, 259.

[22] Aune, 17268-17279; Walvoord, 209.

[23] William Hendriksen, More Than Conquerors (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1967), 150.

[24] Beale, 717; Hippolytus (170-235) believes that the forehead carries the meaning that people are given a crown of fire and death (“On the Antichrist” 49, in ACCS, 207). Primasius (d. c. 560) believes that the forehead represents confession of faith and the hand indicate works, “and it is the right hand to stimulate the truth” (“Commentary on the Apocalypse 13.14-16,” In ACCS, 209). Caesarius of Arles (c. 470-542) believes the same as Primasius (“Exposition on the Apocalypse” 13.12-13, “Homily” II, in ACCS, 209). Andrew of Caesarea (563-637) teaches that the hands represent the end of good works and that the forehead means that they are taught to be bold in deception and darkness (“Commentary on the Apocalypse 13.14-17, in ACCS, 209).

[25] Aune, 17357-17367.

[26] Hendriksen, 150.

[27] Hendriksen, 150; Osbourne, 517.

[28] Beale, 723.

[29] Ibid., 716.

[30] Ibid., 715.

[31] Mounce, 260. See also, Hitchcock, 335.

[32] Beasley-Murray, 1443; Hitchcock, 340; Judge, 158-159; Mounce, 260; Walvoord, 209.

[33] Beale, 715; Mounce, 260; Osbourne, 518; Walvoord, 209.

[34] Mounce, 260.

[35] LaHaye, 227.

[36] Beasley-Murray, 1443; Hippolytus, 207; Hitchcock, 340; MacArthur, 2019. Beale (p. 715) makes the connection between the mark and economic activity by saying, “If [the emperor’s seal on business contracts or his image/name on coins] is in mind [when teaching about the mark]…then it enforces the metaphorical idea that the mark alludes to the state’s political and economic ‘stamp of approval,’ given only to those who go along with its religious demands.”

[37] Daniel I. Block, Deuteronomy (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012), 184.

[38] Ibid., 185.

[39] Osbourne, 519; see also Aune, 17367; Beale, 725-726.

[40] Walvoord, 519.

[41] Hitchcock, 338.

[42] Beale, 718-719. See also Mounce, 260.

[43] Mounce, 260.

[44] Beale, 727; Mounce, 261.

[45] Beasley-Murray, 1443.

[46] Beale, 720-721.

[47] Aune, 17408, 17432, 17496-17504; Beale, 720, 723; Hitchcock, 338; LaHaye, 227; Mounce, 261-262; Osbourne, 519-520; Walvoord, 209-210.

[48] Mounce, 261-262 referencing Baines.

[49] Walvoord, 209-210.

[50] Beale, 727-728; Mounce, 262; Walvoord, 210.

[51] Irenaeus, “Against the Heresies” 5.30.3. In ACCS 211. Hippolytus favors Lateinos (“On the Antichrist,” 50, in ACCS 211, fn. 5)

[52] Primasius, “Commentary on the Apocalypse” 13.18. In ACCS 212. Venerable Bede (c. 673-735) also suggested Titan, antemos and arnoume (Bede, “Explanation of the Apocalypse” 13.18. In ACCS 213, fn. 16).

[53] Oecumenius, “Commentary on the Apocalypse” 13.14-18. In ACCS 212.

[54] Hitchcock, 338.

[55] LaHaye, 227.

[56] Beale, 721.

[57] LaHaye, 227.

[58] In ACCS, 210-211.

[59] Hendriksen, 151. See also Beale, 722, 724-725; Hitchcock, 339-340; LaHaye, 227; Walvoord, 210. Venerable Bede also notes the connection between day six of creation and 666. He also connects the 666 talents of gold that Solomon received (1 Kings 10:14) to the number of the beast (In ACCS 213). 

[60] Beale, 721.

[61] Ibid.

[62] Ibid.

[63] Ibid., 721-722.

[64] Ibid., 722. See also Beasley-Murray, 1443; Hitchcock, 339-340; MacArthur, 2019-2020.

[65] Beasely-Murray, 1443; Hitchcock, 340.

[66] Beale, 722. See also Hitchcock, 339.

[67] Beale, 724. Aune (17387) notes both interpretations but believes that the number identifies one man.

[68] Beale, 725.

[69] Ibid., 726.

[70] Mounce, 261; Osbourne, 520.

[71] Osbourne, 520, fn. 11. He believes that the translation should be “the number of a person [man].”

[72] One can begin with this article on my site.

[73] See MacArthur, 2020; Osbourne, 521.

[74] Beale, 723.

[75] Ibid., 716.

[76] Ibid.

[77] Hendriksen, 149-150.

[78] Beale, 715.

[79] Hailey, 296. Quoted in Mounce, 260.

[80] Hitchcock, 336, 340; Judge, 160; MacArthur, 2019; Mounce, 260.

[81] Mounce, 260. See also Hitchcock, 340.

[82] Hitchcock, 340.

[83] Ibid., 336.

[84] LaHaye, 227.

[85] Hitchcock, 342.

[86] Aune, 17328.

[87] Hitchcock, 336; Judge, 159.

[88] Aune, 17318.

[89] Hitchcock, 342.

[90] Ibid.